684 lines
35 KiB
Markdown
684 lines
35 KiB
Markdown
# Module 1 (Cold War)
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## Background on Russia
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- Long history of expansion
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- A multinational empire
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- The Romanov ruled for over 300 years
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## Russia in the early 20th century
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- Serfdom abolished (1861), industrialization started
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- Social and political tension
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- Low class people forced to pay for their freedom
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- Defeated in war with Japan
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The people wanted change, many wanted more western political systems like a parliament, and many assassinations took place during this time.
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## Revolution
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Tsar Nicholas II abdicates in 1917, replaced by Provisional government (called the February Revolution), but was overthrown by Lenin and Bolsheviks later that year (called the October Revolution). The Russian calendar at the time was 14 days behind the current one, hence the date discrepancy.
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**Some Key Points**
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- Tradition as major power, but struggling to modernize. In a vulnerable state
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- Tradition of autocratic rule and repression
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- Challenges of governing a vast state remain.
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- Bolsheviks have ambitious international goals
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## The Bolsheviks take power
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Their goals:
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- Lenin and his colleagues
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- Revolutionary Marxists: use disciplined party to take power
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- Gain support from workers, other social groups
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- Use force to win and keep power
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- Initially hoped revolution in Russia would spread on an international scale
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## The Russian Civil War
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- Conflict reaches its peak in 1918-1921
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- Reds (Bolsheviks) vs whites
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- bloody conflict, atrocities on both sides
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- Millions of deaths, potentially uncountable more, country in ruins
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- Some nationalities, Poles, Finns , Baltic states, break away and establish states
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- But Bolsheviks/communists emerge victories: authoritarian, repressive tactics
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## Early communist foreign policy
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- Ruthless pragmatism - Lenin's regime signs peace treaty with Imperial Germany in 1918, despite territorial losses, to keep power
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- But Bolsheviks also have revolutionary ambitions - establish communist international (Comintern) in 1919
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- Goal is to encourage formation of communist parties internationally, spread revolution - but proves difficult to achieve
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## Early soviet relations with the west
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- British, French, and Americans, concerned & angered by the Bolshevik takeover in 1917
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- New regime - promotes revolutionary ideas
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- Lenin's treaty with Germany (1918); creates new thread in first world war
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## Intervention in the Russian civil war
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- France, UK, Canada, USA, Japan send troops
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- To protect interest, support whites
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## Soviet union in the 1920s
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- Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) established in 1922
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- Included much of the former Russian empire, but now a federation of republics
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- Western power remain suspicious, but do not see USSR as imminent thread
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- Comintern remains active, but USSR focus on rebuilding after wartime devastation
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## Leadership change from Lenin to Stalin
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- Lenin dies in 1924, Josef Stalin emerges as winner of prolonged power by 1928
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- Promotes Socialism in one Country
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- Imperial Russia - suffered defeats because it was "backward" - Soviet Union must modernize "or the capitalists will crush us"
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## Stalin's Transformation of the USSR
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- Rapid industrial growth through state directed "Five Year Plans" - achieves results but harsh conditions for workers
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- Collectivization of agriculture - to support industrialization, transform society - associated with massive repression, famine
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- Purges - intensive suspicion of conspiracy with foreign power leads to mass arrests, executions in 1930s
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## Stalin's foreign policy in the 1930s
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- Comintern continues to operate
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- Stalin's policies are pragmatic, shift over time
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- Hitler takes power in Germany, 1933 - a serious potential thread
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- Soviet Union calls for "collective security" with Western powers, promotes "Popular Front" policy to oppose fascism
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## On the eve of war
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- 1939 - Second World War looks increasingly likely - Hitler making demands on Poland
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- Stalin - Covets Polish territory, seeks to expand influence, and wants to buy time
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- Negotiations with Britain and France fail; instead USSR signs agreement with Nazi Germany - two countries will not go to war, both to expand influence in Eastern Europe
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## Key points
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- Soviet foreign policy - revolutionary impulse is significant
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- But there is a powerful pragmatic streak - willing to cut deals, shift sides
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- Stalin wants to expand revolution - but also to regain territory, influence of USSR
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## Overview
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- Soviet Union: Moves from cooperating with Nazi Germany to allying with british empire, USA
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- Initial desire to continue cooperating in postwar years soon runs into problems
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- By 1947th alliance has broken down, Cold War has begun - why? Was the breakdown inevitable?
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## Shifting Soviet Policy
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### The Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939-41)
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- Two states agree not to fight, and to partition territory
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- Promotes hostility towards Soviet Union, communist parties in the western democracies
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- Britain, France go to war with Nazi Germany in 1939. France is defeated in 1940, but the British empire hangs on
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- June 1941: Hitler decides to invade USSR; British indicate their willingness to support the soviets
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### Turning Points (1941)
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- Operation Barbarossa and Japans attack on Pearl Harbor
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- The "Big Three" (Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill) meet in Tehran, 1943
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### Formation of the Grand Alliance
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- USA enters the war after Pearl Harbor (1941)
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- Americans, British, Soviets become allies
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- Soviets eventually halt German led invasions, push back, occupying most of Europe
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- *More points in slides*
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### The Soviet Perspective
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- Devastated by war: Estimated 25 million dead
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- Plays key role in defeat of Nazi Germany; Receives Lend-Lease Aid
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- Soviets occupy territory in Eastern Europe, including Poland, Germany - Stalin wants a "sphere of influence"
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- Willing to make some concessions - Stalin dissolves Comintern in 1943 - but insists on security and influence
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### The Western Perspective
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- The United States - dominant power with the largest economy, and had recently developed the atom bomb (1945)
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- Franklin Roosevelt - wanted United Nations, open international order, and willing to work with the Soviets
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- Replaced by Harry Truman in 1945 - Grows more concerned about Soviets and the spread of Communism
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- British Empire - greatly weakened by the war, and wants to rebuild. The attitude was ambiguous towards the USSR
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### Early Tensions
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- Regular meetings of "Big Three" (1943-45)
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- Cooperation continues - USSR joins war against Japan
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- But problems began to emerge:
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1. Future of Poland - uneasy agreement to move territory, form of coalition government
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2. Future of Germany - divided into zones of occupation, what long term policy to pursue
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3. Concerns about soviet espionage, and the potential spread of Communism
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### Germany Divided
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- Poland gains territory
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- Four occupation zones
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- Germans expelled from ...
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### Rising Tensions (1946-47)
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- Sources of Tensions
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- Soviet actives in eastern Europe cause concern
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- Soviet troops are slow to withdraw from Iran
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- Stalin puts pressure on Turkey for access, bases
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- Greek civil war, Communist vs Anti-Communists; fears of Soviet intervention
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- European economies are struggling; American officials feat communism will gain further support
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- Shifting Policies
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- March 1947 - US president Harry Truman promises aid to Greece, Turkey - but framed in broad terms (The Truman Doctrine)
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- June 1947 - The US secretary of state George Marshall proposes massive aid package to support European reconstruction (The Marshall Plan)
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- Western and Eastern European states are invited t participate, asked to develop coordinated plan; Britain and France are keen.
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- The Soviet Response - How to interpret?
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- Wilfred Loth - Soviet are suspicious of the Marshall Plan, quickly reject it, veto East European involvement
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- Geoffrey Roberts - Soviet Response was initially more ambiguous, several reasons for rejection; East European role was complex, not just an issues of "veto"
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- Soviets go on to mobilize criticism of Marshall Plan, create "Cominform" and tighten grip of Eastern Europe
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## Key Points
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- Stalin's foreign policy - complex, driven by desire for security but also to enhance Soviet influence.
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- Willing to work with wartime alliances but within limits - by 1947 those limits are breached. Historians debate if he was actually truthful about this willingness
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- Role of shifting perceptions (in USSR and USA)
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- Significance of ideology in shaping perceptions
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- Significance of advisors, role of other states
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# Global Competition
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- Cold War - an increasingly global confrontation
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- Europe divided into "blocs" by the "Iron Curtain"
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- Communists take power in China, war in Korea
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- Nikita Khrushchev - Seeks to enhance soviet unions international influence, compete with USA - period of tensions and crises
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## Stalin, Europe and Asia
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### Europe Divided
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- After rejecting the Marshall plan, soviet control in eastern Europe tightens further
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- Germany divided: Western zones combined into west Germany, soviet zone become eastern Germany (1949). Berlin a divided city, tension point
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- NATO established 1949, Warsaw Pact 1955
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### Communism in China
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- Long complex power struggle between Chinese Communist (CCP), led by Mao Zedong, and Chinese Nationalists, led by Chiang Kai-shek
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- Civil War (1946-49): Communists win control of the mainland, establish Peoples' Republic (PRC) in 1949
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- Mao and Stalin sign treaty of alliance in 1950, but China is "junior partner" in Soviet opinion; the two countries eventually become rivals
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### War in Korea
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- Korea split into two zones (US and Soviet); evolve along different paths
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- Kim Il-Sung, Communist leader of Norther Korea, orders invasion of South in 1950 (had consulted Mao and Stalin)
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- US-led forces repel invasion, then invade North Korea; China sends troops, heavy fighting; armistice signed in 1953, after Stalin's Death
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## A change in leadership
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### The Rise of Nikita Khrushchev
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- Gradually emerges as dominant leader after Stalin's death, 1953-1956; reduces repression, seeks reform
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- Speaks of "peaceful coexistence", but a true believer in promoting Communism, competing with USA
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- Wants to improve living standards, but also invests heavily in space race; seeks to exert pressure on USA
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- Age of decolonization, states achieving independence in Asia, Africa: Khrushchev sees opportunity
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### The Soviet Union engages the "Third World"
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- Seeking to win friendship, influence in newly independent states; Khrushchev conducts visits
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- Soviets provide material aid, weaponry, other support - role of Komsomol and other organizations
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- Foreign students encouraged to study in USSR
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- Competing with USA for global influence
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- Mao's PRC also emerges as rival/competitor
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### Khrushchev's Cold War Crises: Examples
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- Berlin 1958-1961: Khrushchev tries to pressure western powers into leaving- East German regime is losing thousands of people to the West via Berlin
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- but US and Allies will not back down, result in the building of the Berlin Wall 1961
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- Congo (1960-1961): Soviets seek to support nationalist political Patrice Lumumba, but not in a strong position to exert influence: Lumumba killed in 1961
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### Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
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- Fidel Castro and the Cuban Revolution
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- Tensions rise with United States: Castro turns to the Soviet Union for support
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- Khrushchev sends nuclear missiles to Cuba; Discovery by USA leads to intense confrontation, threat of nuclear war (October 1962)
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- Khrushchev and US president Kennedy negotiate a solution, world sighs with relief
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## Key Points
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- Leadership changes from Stalin to Khrushchev: Change possible with USSR, but continuities are strong
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- Cold War confrontation: Intelligence and military powers crucial, but competition for influence also involves "soft power"
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- Foreign policy and domestic politics are linked: Khrushchev weakened, removed from office 1964
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## Overview
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- Leadership change from Khrushchev to Brezhnev
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- Soviet Cold War policy increasingly complex, expanding military, active in seeking influence, tensions with china
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- 2 more points in slides
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## Leonid Brezhnev
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- Became dominant soviet leader after Khrushchev is removed in 1964, remains in office until death in 1982
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- Very much a product of the soviet system, hopes to sustain it, despite growing challenges
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- Foreign policy goals: retain Soviet Bloc, avoid Nuclear war, compete with USA and PRC for influence
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## Challenges for the Soviet Bloc
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- Previous Uprising (East Germany 1953, Hungary Revolution of 1956) were violently suppressed
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- Czechoslovakia 1968 - New leader, Alexander Dubcek, seeks to enact reforms while remaining in the Warsaw Pact: Socialism with a human face
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- Brezhnev and colleagues grow concerned about implications - send in military forces, August 1968
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- "The Brezhnev Doctrine" asserts right to intervention
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## Soviet System under Brezhnev
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- Initially, economy grows, helped by Oil exports
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- But economic growth stalls mid 1970s-80s
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- Brezhnev spends heavily on military, strains economy
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- Growing sense of disillusionment, Brezhnev declines
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## Soviet Union and the Vietnam War
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- The conflict between Communist North Vietnam, authoritarian republic of Vietnam (South)
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- US intervention in Vietnam intensifies in 1960s
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- Mao Zedong's regime supports North Vietnam but soviets steadily increase aid to compete
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- North Vietnam wins (1975) but USSR had spent billions
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## Relations with Mao's China
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- Rivalry for revolutionary leadership increasingly bitter
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- 4 more points in the notes
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## The rise and fall of Detente
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- US, USSR both want to reduce threat of nuclear war
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- Detente involves US, Soviet, German and European leaders
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- SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
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- SALT I signed, placing restrictions on nuclear arms
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- Paralleled by political development in German states and Europe; talks begin for a SALT 2 treaty
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## Limitations of Detente
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- Soviet Union remains engaged in competition, support for international revolution - supplies arms to Arab states in conflict with Israel, supports African revolutionaries
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- US Carter administration still negotiates but criticizes Soviet record on human rights, continues relations with PRC
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- December 1979: Soviet Union invades Afghanistan to maintain pro-Communist regime
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- Nuclear arms negotiations stall, detente at an end
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## Key points
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- Brezhnev - peruses contradictory policies
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- Wants to avoid nuclear war, willing to negotiate with USA
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- but also wants to ensure Soviet power is respected, continues to seek leadership in international affairs compared to PRC
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- Detente with USA fails, Americans improve relations with China
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- Desire to preserve influence leads to invasion of Afghanistan
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# WAS SICK FOR A WEEK
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# Module Overview
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## Assignment Discussion (Review on D2L for writing essay)
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- Can use other articles in source, mainly for context or historical references
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- No external sources are expected, stick to mainly sourced cited in the article
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- Three more more sentences is what a paragraph should aim to be (or longer). See if small paragraphs could be brought into another paragraph. Break up paragraphs that are a page long and discuss too much
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- About the three readings
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1. First article
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- Attempts to reassess the common mentality of the Marshall Plan, trying to enrich or develop some different perspectives
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- What and why are the underlying roots of the radical shift in foreign policy
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2. Second article
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-
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3. Third reading\
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- Gorbachev ending the Cold War
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# Module 2 (Early Modern)
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- Ordering time
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- Chronology: Placing of events in a sequence of occurrences
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- Periodization: Divide, categorize and name chronological periods of blocks of time
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- Traditional way:
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- Ancient era: Until the fall of the roman empire in the 5th century
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- Medieval era/middle ages 5th to 15th centuries
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- Modern era: from the 15th century until the present day
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- Then historians began to conceive of an early modern era, from the beak of modernity in the 15th until the 18th century, calling after the french revolution as truly modern
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- Basic prioritization for European history
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- Ancient era: Same
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- Medieval era/middle ages: Same
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- Early modern era 15th -18 centuries
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- Modern era: 19th until the present day
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## Defining Early modernity
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- How "new" and different was the early modern period?
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- How and when did the early modern period end?
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- And how different was it from what came after?
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- Degree of continuity/discontinuity between historical periods depends on what aspects of history one focuses on
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### When did the modern era begin?
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- Possible events
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- Siege of Constantinople: 1453
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- Gutenberg Bible: 1454
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- Columbus first voyage: 1492
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- Martin Luther's 95 theses: 1517
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- Or a process
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- The Renaissance
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- Religious reformation
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- Large-scale gunpowder warfare
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- Bullion from the "New World"
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- Early nation ...
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- Or features
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- Global interaction and exploration
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- Shift in global trade flows
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- Unprecedented rise in slave trade
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- Emergence of new cash crops
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- Shifts in political ideology
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- New technologies
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- New types of public sphere and collective identities
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### Great Chain of Being
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- God
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- Angels;Demons
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- Stars, moon
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- Kings, Princes
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- Nobles
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- Commoners
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- Animals
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- Plants. minerals, etc
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Reflection
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- Pre-modern social hierarchies appear unjust in light of modern ideas about the equality of all people
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- How can we explain the contradiction between our discourse on equality on the empirical reality of profound inequalities in our own society
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## Renaissance
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- An Era (approx 1350-1550)
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- Began in Italy, spread to rest of Europe
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- Re-birth: knowledge from the classical world (ancient Greece and Rome)
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- Recovery: Growth and creation following a period of crisis and decline
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- Changes in education, art, culture, architecture, political philosophy, etc
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## Historiography
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- The History of historical writing
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- The study of historical methods and scholarship
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- Traces secondary sources in conversation and in debate
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- Asks: how was history written? Who wrote it? How and why historians produced their scholarship
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## Humanism
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- The ideology of the Renaissance
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- Study of classical texts, and ideas from ancient Greece and Rome, history, moral philosophy, rhetoric, poetry, arts etc
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- Education, public good, civic life
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- Rise of universities in Europe (approx 20 in 1300, 50-70 by 1500)
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- Rise of vernacular literacy
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- Petrarch (1304-1374)
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## Christianity
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Medieval Europe was united by Catholic Christendom
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- System of beliefs and values
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- Dominant the world view
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- church attendance
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- life cycle and christian rites of passage: baptism, confirmation, marriage or religious vows, final rites
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- Passage of time, religious holidays, church bells
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- Churches as space of worship, religious education and socializing
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- Art and music dominated by religious themes
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- Unity and identity - difference from the Other (Jewish and Muslim)
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- "Practice tied to place": Local saints, shrines, chapels, relics, celebrations, leadership and other variations
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Many ways:
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- Catholic church as landowner
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- Social assistance (charity, orphanages, hospitals), education
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- Parish priests administered the sacraments
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- Bible only available in Latin
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- Tithe
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- The papacy controlled the religious hierarchy, distribution of power
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## Reformation
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- Across Europe, 16th century
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- To reform the catholic Church
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- met with resistance, many groups split from the church (Protestants)
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- Broke religious uniformity of medieval Europe
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- not a singular event; multiple processes
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- A period characterized by religious warfare
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- Counter-reformation
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- Periodization often cited as the origins of (early) modernity
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## Events
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- Indulgence Controversy (1517)
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- Indulgences: to purchase release from penance or purgatory
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- Corruption?
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- Depiction of the pope as the Antichrist signing and selling indulgences (by Lucas Cranach the Elder - 1521)
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- Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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- Professor of Theology at University of Wittenberg
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- Luther and others denounced the sale of indulgences
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- **Salvation by faith alone**
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- Pope Leo X, indulgence sale to fund rebuilding of St. Peters basilica, Rome (1515)
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- Luther's Ninety-five Theses (1517), Calling for debate
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- Excommunicated and refused to recant
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- Began to spread his ideas, and sparked debate on his theses
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- Salvation, by faith, by works
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- Scripture, who gets access, who can interpret
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- "Priesthood of believers"
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- Transubstantiation
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- Radical Reform
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- Ana-baptism (re-baptism; pacifism)
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- Mennonites (Americans)
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- Siege at Munster (stoked fears of fanaticism and overturning social order)
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- The Peace of Augsburg (1555)
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- Halted military encounter between Catholic and Protestant Princes in the Holy Roman Empire
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- A compromise, recognizing the permanent religious division of the German states
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- determined that the religion of the ruler of each state would be the official religion of that territory (eius religio)
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- permitted Catholics to relocate the Catholic territories, permitted protestants to relocate to Protestant territories (resulted in large migration)
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- English reformation
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- Henry VIII - Defender of the Faith
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- Act of Supremacy, 1534
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- Catholic / Counter Reformation
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- To reaffirm Catholicism and negate Protestantism
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- Focus on piety, charity, and devotion
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- New religious orders (brotherhoods, monasteries and convents) and a renewal of old orders
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- Power of the Papacy
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- Council of Trent
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## New Technology
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- Printing Press
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- John Calvin
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- Wrote important work of Protestant theology, many translations and editions in his lifetime
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- Became a leading protestant theologian and leader
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- Importance of the printing press in the transmission of his work
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- Movable Type
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- Hallmark of early modernity - The Gutenberg Bible
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- Growth of Libraries, Universities
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- Some Universities have their own, become influential (Oxford)
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- Turned Ideas into a movement
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- Religious pamphlets
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- Broadsheets
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- Engravings, woodcuts
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- Books (ex, saints lives)
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- The Bible (n vernacular)
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- "The art of printing is very useful insofar as it furthers the circulation of useful and tested books; but it can be very harmful if its permitted to widen the influence of pernicious works. It will be necessary to maintain full control over the printers" - Pope Alexander VI (1501)
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## State Power
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- State
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- Defined territory with a government and a permanent population
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- Recognized by other states and able to enter relations with them
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- Has formal systems of law, political organization, government bureaucracy
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- Has systems of communication, education, industry and production
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- Nation
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- A group of people who share language, culture, history, traditions
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- Can refer to ethnicity
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- Tied to place, shared geographic territory an/or loyalty to a state
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- National identity
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- Can be hard to define
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### Imagined Communities
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- "Nation, nationality, nationalism all have proved notoriously difficultly to define, let alone analyse"
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- Defined nation as "an imagined political community, an imagine as both inherently limited as sovereign"
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- "Deep horizontal comradeship"
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- Modern, with early modern origins
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### Early modern states and nations
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- Ruled by hereditary monarchs
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- Growth of government bureaucracies, taxation, military power
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- Nobility under control
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- Consolidation of power and creation of larger states
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- Control over national churches
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- Rise of vernacular languages and print cultures
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- Development of national consciousnesses
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- Growth of states, state power, and national identities were key developments in early modern European history
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- Medieval foundations (beliefs and institutions) and local belongings remained important
|
|
### States
|
|
- Ottoman Empire
|
|
- Italy
|
|
- Spain
|
|
- England
|
|
## New Worlds
|
|
- Early Portuguese expeditions
|
|
- Prince Henry the navigator
|
|
- The port of Lisbon
|
|
- Motivations include trade, religion, exploration, expansion
|
|
- Caravel - advances in boat technology and construction
|
|
- Christopher Columbus
|
|
- Made four voyages, landed in Guanahani / San Salvador on Oct 12 1492
|
|
- Goal to discover sea route to India, which is why he called people Indians
|
|
## Slave Trade
|
|
### Colombian Exchange
|
|
- The movements ...
|
|
### Migration
|
|
- Voluntary vs Involuntary
|
|
- After 1500, the majority of people who crossed the Atlantic were enslaved Africans
|
|
- Trans-Atlantic slave trade
|
|
### Slavery
|
|
- People as property
|
|
- Legal status: condition of unfreedom
|
|
- Violence, exploitation, family separation
|
|
- Captivity, birth
|
|
- Ownership, sale
|
|
- Forced labor,, production, economy
|
|
- Ancient. Ongoing
|
|
- Language: Slave/Enslaved person
|
|
### Mediterranean Slavery
|
|
- Ancient World
|
|
- Roman Empire
|
|
- Slave societies - dependence on slave labor
|
|
- Medieval world
|
|
- Christian and Islamic
|
|
- Societies with slaves - slavery was accepted and common, but economies not dependent on slave labor
|
|
### Portuguese Age of Sale
|
|
- Elmina (1482)
|
|
- Trans Atlantic slave trade
|
|
- 15-19th centuries, 1525: First ship to America
|
|
- Peak in 1780s
|
|
- 1866: Last ship
|
|
- 12.5 million African people captured
|
|
- 10.7 million survived the middle passage
|
|
- https://www.slavevoyages.org
|
|
- The middle passage
|
|
- Forced ocean journey of enslaved Africans to the Americas
|
|
- 1-3 months at sea
|
|
- floating tombs
|
|
- High death rate (10%-20%)
|
|
- Baptisms at Portuguese forts
|
|
- Trauma, violence
|
|
- Disease, malnutrition
|
|
- Impact on African Societies
|
|
- Violence, Trauma, Death
|
|
- Massive population loss
|
|
- Gender imbalance, more men taken in slave trades
|
|
- Family separation
|
|
- Some rulers profited
|
|
- Long-term instability
|
|
- European political and economic power were built on the labor of enslaved people
|
|
- Sugar cane production, Brazil, 17th century
|
|
- Very dangerous labor
|
|
- Cocoa
|
|
### Slavery and Resistance
|
|
- Violent Rebellion
|
|
- Desertion, "marronage"
|
|
- "From the earliest time in which Africans were brought forcibly to the New World they resisted bondage by flight, or marronage"
|
|
- Runaway communities
|
|
- Quilombos
|
|
- Communities founded by African and African decended people, including those who escaped enslavement
|
|
- Hundreds in Brazil, since 1530
|
|
- The Quilombo of Palmares was the largest fugitive community in Brazil (approx 11000 people)
|
|
- Zumbi dos Palmares (1655-1695)
|
|
- Sabotage, property destruction
|
|
- "Foot dragging"
|
|
- Judicial action
|
|
- Petitions, lawsuits, appeals
|
|
- Purchase, legal manumission, freedom
|
|
### Slavery and Race
|
|
- Growth of associate between blackness and the status of slavery
|
|
- Emergence of radicalized prejudice in early modern era
|
|
- Negative stereotypes, assumptions about servitude
|
|
- Iberian world: growing racial concepts, blood purity
|
|
- Political, religious and "natural" justifications for slavery
|
|
# Ancient History
|
|
## Intro
|
|
Where and when are we?
|
|
- When does history begin
|
|
- From neanderthals to cities
|
|
- What is writing
|
|
- Invention of cuneiform
|
|
- Decipherable
|
|
- Early Mesopotamian history
|
|
- Cuneiform and the writing of history
|
|
- Reflections on the origins of writing
|
|
How are history and memory connected?
|
|
### Ways of knowing - History
|
|
- History is recovered through a variety of methods
|
|
- These methods have changed over the years
|
|
- How and what can we write about history is wholly dependent on these methods
|
|
- Same as other fields (i.e. electron microscope)
|
|
- These are intrinsic and extrinsic factors
|
|
- Intrinsic: Evolution of scaly fish? (We didn't do anything, happened on its own?)
|
|
- Extrinsic: Developed a technology, and now we can know more (i.e. electron microscope)?
|
|
Cave painting is it history?
|
|
- Knew how to draw on walls
|
|
- Elk?
|
|
Egyptian scripture is it history?
|
|
- Status
|
|
- Ramses document
|
|
- Kings
|
|
- People in document
|
|
Problems
|
|
- Only have documents of debatable importance (important stuff presumed to be used?)
|
|
- Artifacts and documents unavailable due to restrictions like people living there still, or natural factors
|
|
- Dangerous locations prevent research, or too expensive now
|
|
- Or it just plain doesn't exist anymore (Ziggurat)
|
|
So what can we do
|
|
- Look for places where we can eek out some pieces of history
|
|
### How do we divide time
|
|
- Prehistory vs history
|
|
- Three age system
|
|
- Stone age
|
|
- Bronze age
|
|
- Iron Age
|
|
- BP (before present)
|
|
- Others?
|
|
## Lecture 2 (Didnt get title)
|
|
- Prehistory
|
|
- a
|
|
- Archaeology
|
|
- Study of past humans through the remains of their activities
|
|
- What can we recreate / know / can't know from archaeology
|
|
- Evolution of modern humans
|
|
- Homo habilis 2.8 mya used stone tools
|
|
- Homo erectus 1.5 mya used fire and complex tools and left africa
|
|
- 100-50 kya homo sapiens migrated out of Africa, replaced previous hominids, and developed "behavioral modernity"
|
|
- Eras
|
|
- Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) - 3.3 mya - 12 kya
|
|
- Lower (3.3 mya - 300 kya)
|
|
- Middle (300 - 50 kya)
|
|
- Upper (50-12 kya)
|
|
- What makes these distinction salient
|
|
- Lower: simple stone tools (pick best stone)
|
|
- Middle: prepaired stone tools, art, burial pracitices
|
|
- Upper: flint tools, complex tools (hook, lamps), cave art, figural art
|
|
- But these are gradual changes, and always under revision
|
|
- Cultures are named after type sites: eg. Oldowan tools from Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania
|
|
- Three Age System
|
|
- Stone Age - 3.3mya - 2000bce
|
|
- Bronze Age 3300bce - 1200 bce
|
|
- Iron Age 1200 - ?
|
|
- Neolithic
|
|
- Pre pottery Neolithic (10 000 - 6500 bce)
|
|
- Pottery Neolithic (7000 - 4500 bce)
|
|
- Begins with transition to agriculture and ends with metalworking
|
|
- Younger Dryas event (global climate change) impacted hunter gatherer societies and increased food stress
|
|
- Divisions within are marked by new tools, new use of animals, plants, and architecture
|
|
- Agricultural Revolution
|
|
- Domestication of plants (flora) and animals (fauna) - 10 000 bce
|
|
- Repeated harvesting of wild varieties slowly fed to beneficial traits being selected, creating out modern domestic species
|
|
- Goats were probably the first animals domesticated
|
|
- Didn't necessarily lead to healthier or better outcomes
|
|
- Beginning of Urbanism
|
|
- Early Cities
|
|
- Cataholouk
|
|
- Jericho
|
|
- Populations began to settle down and use the surpleuses created by effcient agricultural production to densify and specialize their populations
|
|
- Complex architecture, public communal space
|
|
- Case Study - Gobekli Tepe
|
|
- Very early settlement (11500 - 10 000 BP)
|
|
- Large stone circular rooms and decorated pillar
|
|
- Evidence of food preparation (grain and animals bones, non-domesticated)
|
|
- Abandoned around when agriculture was invented
|
|
- Case Study - Ayn Ghazal
|
|
- Pre pottery Neolithic settlement outside of modern day Amman Jordan
|
|
- Discovered when a bulldozer litterally dug into it while exacating for a new road
|
|
- Amazing picture of what Neolothic life looked like and the beliefs/practicies of people pre-writing
|
|
- Excavated in the late 1980s (meaing the methods are very good)
|
|
- Houses
|
|
- Stone walls
|
|
- Single room
|
|
- Sunken plaster hearth
|
|
- Likely wooden posts holding up a roof, later turned into a two room house with a door
|
|
- Subsistence
|
|
- Domestication of wheat, barley, lentils, peas, chick-peas
|
|
- Animals remain show a huge reliance on goats, but also a wide variety of wild species
|
|
- The skeletal remains of animals show the actual process of domestic an (change in body), meaning it was happening while people lived at Ayn Ghazal (smaller heads, teeth)
|
|
- Statues
|
|
- Lime plaster statues molded around a reed core, the reeds were tightened with twine
|
|
- Statues were painted with ochre (red) and carbon (black)
|
|
- Eyes were outlined in green/black
|
|
- Lots of fine details in plaster, knees, toes, toe nails, small ears
|
|
## Writing
|
|
- What is writing
|
|
- Talking about writing systems, a socially agreed upon method for recording information
|
|
- Physical form of memory, often taking memories or thourghts and putting them on a physical item in the world
|
|
- Made up of grapemes (symbols) which represent a wide variety of types of information
|
|
- Not necessarily linear
|
|
- Are symbolic maps or calenders writing?
|
|
- Different ways of writing
|
|
- Writing is inveted for a purpose which often determines (along with available material) its form
|
|
- Alphabetic - Latin alphabet, Arabic abjad, alphabet with no vowels
|
|
- Syllabic - Japnese, Cherrokee, Amharic
|
|
- Logographic - Chinese
|
|
- Ideahraphic/Semasiographic - Writing without speech
|
|
- Writing systems change over time, ie symbols change over time
|
|
- How and why is writing invented
|
|
- Always exists before proper writing, but may not lead to writing
|
|
- Early notation systems, usually numbers or single non numerical symbols
|
|
- Examples: Neolithic lunar counts, Andean Quipu
|
|
- Invention of writing
|
|
- Cuniform
|
|
- Earlies form of writing, originates from early numerical tablets, tags, and clay tokens
|
|
- First examples date to around 3200 BCE in southern mesopotamia
|
|
- Early texts are economic accounts of transsactions
|
|
- The script is logosyllabic, symbals can be words or sounds
|
|
- In use for over 3000 years
|
|
- Materiality
|
|
- Impressed into wet clay tablets or carved into stone reliefs (rarely painted), also writte n on wax but only one fragment survives
|
|
- Incredibly durable, turn rock hard when fired in city buidling destruction
|
|
- around a million still left in the ground, 100s of thousands in museeum collections untranslated
|
|
- Heiroglyphs
|
|
- Early wooden stoen tags with precursor symbols
|
|
- First examples around 3200 bce in ancient egypt (abydos)
|
|
- Script is logogosyllabic
|
|
- Early texts are found in funerary contexts and record owners...
|
|
- Materiality
|
|
- Carved into stone surfaces
|
|
- Inked onto papyrus
|
|
- Stone carvings survives and paints survives well in tomes, papyrus survives in tombs
|
|
- Very little survives outside of funerary contexts
|
|
- New discovers are allowing us to read previously ignored sources (trash heaps)
|
|
- Chinese
|
|
- Early pictoral inscriptions exist, and maybe knotted cords but evidence is scarce
|
|
- First examples around found around 1200 bce
|
|
- Early texts are records of divination recored on turtle shells called "oracle bones", soon after it us used fr royal inscriptions cast in bronze
|
|
- Script is logogprahic
|
|
- Still in use today
|
|
- Materiality
|
|
- The tutyle bones and cast metal peices survive well in the archelogical recor, wood and bamboo slips have until recently not been recovaerable
|
|
- Recent finds of intact banboo strips and the ability of conserve and read them has revolutionaited the field of Chinese literature
|
|
- First inention of printing (movalbe type) - 1040 CE
|
|
- Mayan
|
|
- Prior proto writing: Olmec, Zaptotec (as more is known theese might become full writing systems)
|
|
- First example date to 300 BCE in central america
|
|
- Early texts are primarily about ownership of objects and poltical power
|
|
- The script is logosyllabic
|
|
- Materiality
|
|
- Mayan script was written on a wide variety of materials
|
|
- Painited onto vessals and walls
|
|
- Carved into wood and stone
|
|
- Each material/method has its own rate of surviavbility, what does this mean if certain genres of text were written on certain materials
|
|
- Key takeaways
|
|
- Writing is independently invented in multiple places at different times
|
|
- We use this invention of writing to demarcate a major division in historical eras (prehistory vs history)
|
|
- The invention of writing is a gradual process
|
|
- Early writing is invented for a variety of purposes
|
|
- Writing is not necessarily analogous to recorded speech
|
|
- Writing is invented in already complex society with forms of proto-writing and not ex-novo (out of nothing)
|
|
## Cuneiform
|
|
- Overview
|
|
- ...
|
|
- Death
|
|
- Cuneiform probably stopped being written somewhere around 1st c CE, replaced by Aramaic and Greek
|
|
- Later writers claimed their teachers (or teacher's teacher) knew the writings of the Chaldean's
|
|
- Travelers in the Middle East from the 15th century onward saw the marks and thought they were decorative
|
|
- Decipherment
|
|
- Carsten Niebuhr traveled to Persepolis (1764) and made excellent copies of the inscriptions, identified that there were three scripts in use
|
|
- Friedrich Munter guessed (1802) that in the Old-Persian inscription the most common word was probably "king"
|
|
- Georg Gotefend knew that later inscription started with "kings name great king, king of kings, son of kings father the king" and started guessing Persian kings
|