Notes/UNB/Year 5/Semester 1/HIST1001/In class notes.md

Russia

Background on Russia

• Long history of expansion
• A multinational empire
• The Romanov ruled for over 300 years

Russia in the early 20th century

• Serfdom abolished (1861), industrialization started
• Social and political tension
• Low class people forced to pay for their freedom
• Defeated in war with Japan The people wanted change, many wanted more western political systems like a parliament, and many assassinations took place during this time.

Revolution

Tsar Nicholas II abdicates in 1917, replaced by Provisional government (called the February Revolution), but was overthrown by Lenin and Bolsheviks later that year (called the October Revolution). The Russian calendar at the time was 14 days behind the current one, hence the date discrepancy.

Some Key Points

• Tradition as major power, but struggling to modernize. In a vulnerable state
• Tradition of autocratic rule and repression
• Challenges of governing a vast state remain.
• Bolsheviks have ambitious international goals

The Bolsheviks take power

Their goals:

• Lenin and his colleagues
  • Revolutionary Marxists: use disciplined party to take power
• Gain support from workers, other social groups
• Use force to win and keep power
• Initially hoped revolution in Russia would spread on an international scale

The Russian Civil War

• Conflict reaches its peak in 1918-1921
• Reds (Bolsheviks) vs whites
• bloody conflict, atrocities on both sides
• Millions of deaths, potentially uncountable more, country in ruins
• Some nationalities, Poles, Finns , Baltic states, break away and establish states
• But Bolsheviks/communists emerge victories: authoritarian, repressive tactics

Early communist foreign policy

• Ruthless pragmatism - Lenin's regime signs peace treaty with Imperial Germany in 1918, despite territorial losses, to keep power
• But Bolsheviks also have revolutionary ambitions - establish communist international (Comintern) in 1919
• Goal is to encourage formation of communist parties internationally, spread revolution - but proves difficult to achieve

Early soviet relations with the west

• British, French, and Americans, concerned & angered by the Bolshevik takeover in 1917
• New regime - promotes revolutionary ideas
• Lenin's treaty with Germany (1918); creates new thread in first world war

Intervention in the Russian civil war

• France, UK, Canada, USA, Japan send troops
• To protect interest, support whites

Soviet union in the 1920s

• Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) established in 1922
• Included much of the former Russian empire, but now a federation of republics
• Western power remain suspicious, but do not see USSR as imminent thread
• Comintern remains active, but USSR focus on rebuilding after wartime devastation

Leadership change from Lenin to Stalin

• Lenin dies in 1924, Josef Stalin emerges as winner of prolonged power by 1928
• Promotes Socialism in one Country
• Imperial Russia - suffered defeats because it was "backward" - Soviet Union must modernize "or the capitalists will crush us"

Stalin's Transformation of the USSR

• Rapid industrial growth through state directed "Five Year Plans" - achieves results but harsh conditions for workers
• Collectivization of agriculture - to support industrialization, transform society - associated with massive repression, famine
• Purges - intensive suspicion of conspiracy with foreign power leads to mass arrests, executions in 1930s

Stalin's foreign policy in the 1930s

• Comintern continues to operate
• Stalin's policies are pragmatic, shift over time
• Hitler takes power in Germany, 1933 - a serious potential thread
• Soviet Union calls for "collective security" with Western powers, promotes "Popular Front" policy to oppose fascism

On the eve of war

• 1939 - Second World War looks increasingly likely - Hitler making demands on Poland
• Stalin - Covets Polish territory, seeks to expand influence, and wants to buy time
• Negotiations with Britain and France fail; instead USSR signs agreement with Nazi Germany - two countries will not go to war, both to expand influence in Eastern Europe

Key points

• Soviet foreign policy - revolutionary impulse is significant
• But there is a powerful pragmatic streak - willing to cut deals, shift sides
• Stalin wants to expand revolution - but also to regain territory, influence of USSR

Overview

• Soviet Union: Moves from cooperating with Nazi Germany to allying with british empire, USA
• Initial desire to continue cooperating in postwar years soon runs into problems
• By 1947th alliance has broken down, Cold War has begun - why? Was the breakdown inevitable?

Shifting Soviet Policy

The Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939-41)

• Two states agree not to fight, and to partition territory
• Promotes hostility towards Soviet Union, communist parties in the western democracies
• Britain, France go to war with Nazi Germany in 1939. France is defeated in 1940, but the British empire hangs on
• June 1941: Hitler decides to invade USSR; British indicate their willingness to support the soviets

Turning Points (1941)

• Operation Barbarossa and Japans attack on Pearl Harbor
• The "Big Three" (Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill) meet in Tehran, 1943

Formation of the Grand Alliance

• USA enters the war after Pearl Harbor (1941)
• Americans, British, Soviets become allies
• Soviets eventually halt German led invasions, push back, occupying most of Europe
• More points in slides

The Soviet Perspective

• Devastated by war: Estimated 25 million dead
• Plays key role in defeat of Nazi Germany; Receives Lend-Lease Aid
• Soviets occupy territory in Eastern Europe, including Poland, Germany - Stalin wants a "sphere of influence"
• Willing to make some concessions - Stalin dissolves Comintern in 1943 - but insists on security and influence

The Western Perspective

• The United States - dominant power with the largest economy, and had recently developed the atom bomb (1945)
• Franklin Roosevelt - wanted United Nations, open international order, and willing to work with the Soviets
• Replaced by Harry Truman in 1945 - Grows more concerned about Soviets and the spread of Communism
• British Empire - greatly weakened by the war, and wants to rebuild. The attitude was ambiguous towards the USSR

Early Tensions

• Regular meetings of "Big Three" (1943-45)
• Cooperation continues - USSR joins war against Japan
• But problems began to emerge:
  1. Future of Poland - uneasy agreement to move territory, form of coalition government
  2. Future of Germany - divided into zones of occupation, what long term policy to pursue
  3. Concerns about soviet espionage, and the potential spread of Communism

Germany Divided

• Poland gains territory
• Four occupation zones
• Germans expelled from ...

Rising Tensions (1946-47)

• Sources of Tensions
  • Soviet actives in eastern Europe cause concern
  • Soviet troops are slow to withdraw from Iran
  • Stalin puts pressure on Turkey for access, bases
  • Greek civil war, Communist vs Anti-Communists; fears of Soviet intervention
  • European economies are struggling; American officials feat communism will gain further support
• Shifting Policies
  • March 1947 - US president Harry Truman promises aid to Greece, Turkey - but framed in broad terms (The Truman Doctrine)
  • June 1947 - The US secretary of state George Marshall proposes massive aid package to support European reconstruction (The Marshall Plan)
  • Western and Eastern European states are invited t participate, asked to develop coordinated plan; Britain and France are keen.
• The Soviet Response - How to interpret?
  • Wilfred Loth - Soviet are suspicious of the Marshall Plan, quickly reject it, veto East European involvement
  • Geoffrey Roberts - Soviet Response was initially more ambiguous, several reasons for rejection; East European role was complex, not just an issues of "veto"
  • Soviets go on to mobilize criticism of Marshall Plan, create "Cominform" and tighten grip of Eastern Europe

Key Points

• Stalin's foreign policy - complex, driven by desire for security but also to enhance Soviet influence.
• Willing to work with wartime alliances but within limits - by 1947 those limits are breached. Historians debate if he was actually truthful about this willingness
• Role of shifting perceptions (in USSR and USA)
• Significance of ideology in shaping perceptions
• Significance of advisors, role of other states

Global Competition

• Cold War - an increasingly global confrontation
• Europe divided into "blocs" by the "Iron Curtain"
• Communists take power in China, war in Korea
• Nikita Khrushchev - Seeks to enhance soviet unions international influence, compete with USA - period of tensions and crises

Stalin, Europe and Asia

Europe Divided

• After rejecting the Marshall plan, soviet control in eastern Europe tightens further
• Germany divided: Western zones combined into west Germany, soviet zone become eastern Germany (1949). Berlin a divided city, tension point
• NATO established 1949, Warsaw Pact 1955

Communism in China

• Long complex power struggle between Chinese Communist (CCP), led by Mao Zedong, and Chinese Nationalists, led by Chiang Kai-shek
• Civil War (1946-49): Communists win control of the mainland, establish Peoples' Republic (PRC) in 1949
• Mao and Stalin sign treaty of alliance in 1950, but China is "junior partner" in Soviet opinion; the two countries eventually become rivals

War in Korea

• Korea split into two zones (US and Soviet); evolve along different paths
• Kim Il-Sung, Communist leader of Norther Korea, orders invasion of South in 1950 (had consulted Mao and Stalin)
• US-led forces repel invasion, then invade North Korea; China sends troops, heavy fighting; armistice signed in 1953, after Stalin's Death

A change in leadership

The Rise of Nikita Khrushchev

• Gradually emerges as dominant leader after Stalin's death, 1953-1956; reduces repression, seeks reform
• Speaks of "peaceful coexistence", but a true believer in promoting Communism, competing with USA
• Wants to improve living standards, but also invests heavily in space race; seeks to exert pressure on USA
• Age of decolonization, states achieving independence in Asia, Africa: Khrushchev sees opportunity

The Soviet Union engages the "Third World"

• Seeking to win friendship, influence in newly independent states; Khrushchev conducts visits
• Soviets provide material aid, weaponry, other support - role of Komsomol and other organizations
• Foreign students encouraged to study in USSR
• Competing with USA for global influence
• Mao's PRC also emerges as rival/competitor

Khrushchev's Cold War Crises: Examples

• Berlin 1958-1961: Khrushchev tries to pressure western powers into leaving- East German regime is losing thousands of people to the West via Berlin
• but US and Allies will not back down, result in the building of the Berlin Wall 1961
• Congo (1960-1961): Soviets seek to support nationalist political Patrice Lumumba, but not in a strong position to exert influence: Lumumba killed in 1961

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

• Fidel Castro and the Cuban Revolution
• Tensions rise with United States: Castro turns to the Soviet Union for support
• Khrushchev sends nuclear missiles to Cuba; Discovery by USA leads to intense confrontation, threat of nuclear war (October 1962)
• Khrushchev and US president Kennedy negotiate a solution, world sighs with relief

Key Points

• Leadership changes from Stalin to Khrushchev: Change possible with USSR, but continuities are strong
• Cold War confrontation: Intelligence and military powers crucial, but competition for influence also involves "soft power"
• Foreign policy and domestic politics are linked: Khrushchev weakened, removed from office 1964