132 lines
8.3 KiB
Markdown
132 lines
8.3 KiB
Markdown
# Russia
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## Background on Russia
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- Long history of expansion
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- A multinational empire
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- The Romanov ruled for over 300 years
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## Russia in the early 20th century
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- Serfdom abolished (1861), industrialization started
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- Social and political tension
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- Low class people forced to pay for their freedom
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- Defeated in war with Japan
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The people wanted change, many wanted more western political systems like a parliament, and many assassinations took place during this time.
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## Revolution
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Tsar Nicholas II abdicates in 1917, replaced by Provisional government (called the February Revolution), but was overthrown by Lenin and Bolsheviks later that year (called the October Revolution). The Russian calendar at the time was 14 days behind the current one, hence the date discrepancy.
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**Some Key Points**
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- Tradition as major power, but struggling to modernize. In a vulnerable state
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- Tradition of autocratic rule and repression
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- Challenges of governing a vast state remain.
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- Bolsheviks have ambitious international goals
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## The Bolsheviks take power
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Their goals:
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- Lenin and his colleagues
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- Revolutionary Marxists: use disciplined party to take power
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- Gain support from workers, other social groups
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- Use force to win and keep power
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- Initially hoped revolution in Russia would spread on an international scale
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## The Russian Civil War
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- Conflict reaches its peak in 1918-1921
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- Reds (Bolsheviks) vs whites
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- bloody conflict, atrocities on both sides
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- Millions of deaths, potentially uncountable more, country in ruins
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- Some nationalities, Poles, Finns , Baltic states, break away and establish states
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- But Bolsheviks/communists emerge victories: authoritarian, repressive tactics
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## Early communist foreign policy
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- Ruthless pragmatism - Lenin's regime signs peace treaty with Imperial Germany in 1918, despite territorial losses, to keep power
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- But Bolsheviks also have revolutionary ambitions - establish communist international (Comintern) in 1919
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- Goal is to encourage formation of communist parties internationally, spread revolution - but proves difficult to achieve
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## Early soviet relations with the west
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- British, French, and Americans, concerned & angered by the Bolshevik takeover in 1917
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- New regime - promotes revolutionary ideas
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- Lenin's treaty with Germany (1918); creates new thread in first world war
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## Intervention in the Russian civil war
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- France, UK, Canada, USA, Japan send troops
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- To protect interest, support whites
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## Soviet union in the 1920s
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- Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) established in 1922
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- Included much of the former Russian empire, but now a federation of republics
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- Western power remain suspicious, but do not see USSR as imminent thread
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- Comintern remains active, but USSR focus on rebuilding after wartime devastation
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## Leadership change from Lenin to Stalin
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- Lenin dies in 1924, Josef Stalin emerges as winner of prolonged power by 1928
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- Promotes Socialism in one Country
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- Imperial Russia - suffered defeats because it was "backward" - Soviet Union must modernize "or the capitalists will crush us"
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## Stalin's Transformation of the USSR
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- Rapid industrial growth through state directed "Five Year Plans" - achieves results but harsh conditions for workers
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- Collectivization of agriculture - to support industrialization, transform society - associated with massive repression, famine
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- Purges - intensive suspicion of conspiracy with foreign power leads to mass arrests, executions in 1930s
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## Stalin's foreign policy in the 1930s
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- Comintern continues to operate
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- Stalin's policies are pragmatic, shift over time
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- Hitler takes power in Germany, 1933 - a serious potential thread
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- Soviet Union calls for "collective security" with Western powers, promotes "Popular Front" policy to oppose fascism
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## On the eve of war
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- 1939 - Second World War looks increasingly likely - Hitler making demands on Poland
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- Stalin - Covets Polish territory, seeks to expand influence, and wants to buy time
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- Negotiations with Britain and France fail; instead USSR signs agreement with Nazi Germany - two countries will not go to war, both to expand influence in Eastern Europe
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## Key points
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- Soviet foreign policy - revolutionary impulse is significant
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- But there is a powerful pragmatic streak - willing to cut deals, shift sides
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- Stalin wants to expand revolution - but also to regain territory, influence of USSR
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## Overview
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- Soviet Union: Moves from cooperating with Nazi Germany to allying with british empire, USA
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- Initial desire to continue cooperating in postwar years soon runs into problems
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- By 1947th alliance has broken down, Cold War has begun - why? Was the breakdown inevitable?
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## Shifting Soviet Policy
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### The Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939-41)
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- Two states agree not to fight, and to partition territory
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- Promotes hostility towards Soviet Union, communist parties in the western democracies
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- Britain, France go to war with Nazi Germany in 1939. France is defeated in 1940, but the British empire hangs on
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- June 1941: Hitler decides to invade USSR; British indicate their willingness to support the soviets
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### Turning Points (1941)
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- Operation Barbarossa and Japans attack on Pearl Harbor
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- The "Big Three" (Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill) meet in Tehran, 1943
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### Formation of the Grand Alliance
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- USA enters the war after Pearl Harbor (1941)
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- Americans, British, Soviets become allies
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- Soviets eventually halt German led invasions, push back, occupying most of Europe
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- *More points in slides*
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### The Soviet Perspective
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- Devastated by war: Estimated 25 million dead
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- Plays key role in defeat of Nazi Germany; Receives Lend-Lease Aid
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- Soviets occupy territory in Eastern Europe, including Poland, Germany - Stalin wants a "sphere of influence"
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- Willing to make some concessions - Stalin dissolves Comintern in 1943 - but insists on security and influence
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### The Western Perspective
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- The United States - dominant power with the largest economy, and had recently developed the atom bomb (1945)
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- Franklin Roosevelt - wanted United Nations, open international order, and willing to work with the Soviets
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- Replaced by Harry Truman in 1945 - Grows more concerned about Soviets and the spread of Communism
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- British Empire - greatly weakened by the war, and wants to rebuild. The attitude was ambiguous towards the USSR
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### Early Tensions
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- Regular meetings of "Big Three" (1943-45)
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- Cooperation continues - USSR joins war against Japan
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- But problems began to emerge:
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1. Future of Poland - uneasy agreement to move territory, form of coalition government
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2. Future of Germany - divided into zones of occupation, what long term policy to pursue
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3. Concerns about soviet espionage, and the potential spread of Communism
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### Germany Divided
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- Poland gains territory
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- Four occupation zones
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- Germans expelled from ...
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### Rising Tensions (1946-47)
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- Sources of Tensions
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- Soviet actives in eastern Europe cause concern
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- Soviet troops are slow to withdraw from Iran
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- Stalin puts pressure on Turkey for access, bases
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- Greek civil war, Communist vs Anti-Communists; fears of Soviet intervention
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- European economies are struggling; American officials feat communism will gain further support
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- Shifting Policies
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- March 1947 - US president Harry Truman promises aid to Greece, Turkey - but framed in broad terms (The Truman Doctrine)
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- June 1947 - The US secretary of state George Marshall proposes massive aid package to support European reconstruction (The Marshall Plan)
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- Western and Eastern European states are invited t participate, asked to develop coordinated plan; Britain and France are keen.
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- The Soviet Response - How to interpret?
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- Wilfred Loth - Soviet are suspicious of the Marshall Plan, quickly reject it, veto East European involvement
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- Geoffrey Roberts - Soviet Response was initially more ambiguous, several reasons for rejection; East European role was complex, not just an issues of "veto"
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- Soviets go on to mobilize criticism of Marshall Plan, create "Cominform" and tighten grip of Eastern Europe
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## Key Points
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- Stalin's foreign policy - complex, driven by desire for security but also to enhance Soviet influence.
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- Willing to work with wartime allances but within limits - by 1947 those limits are breached. Historians debate if he was actually truthful about this willingness
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- Role of shifting perceptions (in USSR and USA)
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- Significance of ideology in shaping perceptions
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- Significance of advisors, role of other states
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